► South Korea and Europe call for inclusiveness, but only if certain values such as openness, transparency, freedom, and accountability are respected. To put it bluntly, neither South Korea nor Europe believe that China respects these values today. By definition, they have made a choice about where they stand in the US-China competition. They stand with their ally, the US.

► This shared approach of not being as explicit in criticising China, at least in public, in fact binds South Korea and Europe in a way that can reinforce security cooperation.

► Considering the many areas in which they can boost security links and their similar views and approaches to the Sino-American rivalry, Seoul and its European partners are poised to boost security cooperation.